Polish Professors at Prague Universities (14th–18th Centuries). A Prosopographic Study

This article examines the question of the participation of professors from Poland in the academic life in Prague from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries. Because the article is a prosopographic study, the group of surveyed professors is presented in the context of their academic careers, territorial and social origins, motivation to take up an academic career in Prague, and life after their academic endeavours in Prague had come to an end.

In turn, by referring to sources and auxiliary literature (the exact bibliographical list can be found in the appendix) it was possible to reconstruct the biographies of these professors in the context of the research.

Polish professors at the Three-Faculty University (1372-1419)
In the very early days of the Prague studium generale , there were no Poles among the professors, so the first university in Prague at which Polish professors appeared as regular lecturers (actu regentes) was the Three-Faculty University (1372-1419). Most commonly, they served as examiners (commissioners) elected from the Polish nation before the examination session to conduct examinations for bachelors and masters of the arts. 8 Throughout the period in question, specifically from 1374 to 1411, only ten Polish professors sat on examination committees (fourteen committees, including thirteen for bachelor of arts), examining a total of 273 students (eleven from Poland). Given the fact that from 1373 to 1419 there were 184 examination committees debating at the liberal arts faculty of the Three-Faculty University, 9 the participation of Polish professors can be considered symbolic (approx. 7.5%). The second group of professor functions at the artium faculty involved the opportunity to teach and promote new bachelors and masters of arts. The Liber decanorum provides information about the supervisors of individual students, although this is not the rule. After all, the preserved material allows, at least in part, presentation of the issue of masters from the Polish Kingdom as supervisors of bachelors and masters of artium. The supervisors comprised a group of nine masters from the Polish Kingdom, who promoted a total of eighteen bachelors and five masters of arts. Stefan Mladota of Czersk was the most frequent supervisor (six bachelors and one master of arts) together with Jan of Fałków (three bachelors and one master of arts). Most often, the students of masters from the Kingdom of Poland were their compatriots; in as many as fifteen cases their countrymen were promoted, and in one case it was even a family member: Mikołaj Wigandi of Kraków (Cracow) promoted Paweł Wigandi of Kraków for a bachelor of arts in 1383. 10 It is worth noting that from 1378 to 1419, i.e. the period in which masters from the Kingdom of Poland were active at the university, there is information in the deanʼs book about 3,548 students earning academic degrees. 11 Of course, supervisor data on individual students was typically not recorded, but if we compare that number with the twenty-three bachelors and masters promoted by professors from the Kingdom of Poland, it is clear that the ʼPolishʼ supervisors contributed only a fraction of the academic degrees awarded in Prague to students of liberal arts.
In summary, it should be noted that at the Three-Faculty University in the years 1373 to 1419, a total of thirteen professors 12 (46% nobles, 54% townspeople) from the Polish Kingdom (as many as five from the capital city of Kraków; 70% from Lesser Poland) carried out their duties in the years 1374 to 1411. If we compare the proportion of professors from the Kingdom of Poland with the total number of professors at the Three-Faculty University (actu regens) during their tenure (1374-1411), we see that of 1,111 professors 13 only 1.2% were from the Kingdom of Poland. 14 However, in looking at the numbers for individual years, the percentage of Poles increases significantly. In 1401, four of the universityʼs forty professors were ʼPolishʼ (10%), while there were two of a total of thirty-four professors (6%) in 1394, two of a total of forty-two professors (5%) in 1395, and two of a total of forty-four professors (4.5%) in 1397. 15 Thus, it was in 1401 that ʼPolishʼ professors achieved the greatest representation in the activities of the Three-Faculty University, though the number was clearly not dominant or particularly extraordinary. It is worth pointing out that as many as nine of these professors would later lecture at the University of Kraków (Paweł Włodkowic, Jan of Fałków and Mikołaj of Pyzdry were its rectors and Henryk of Kłobuck was dean), 16 so their time in Prague was merely a stop along their greater academic career paths.

Polish professors at the Utraquist University (1419-1622)
A small number of Polish students studying at the single-faculty University of Prague, who eventually earned degrees, automatically influenced the modest proportion of these graduates among the Prague professors. Of the twenty identified students from the Kingdom of Poland, only five (four were its graduates) attended the University of Prague during the fifteenth century (more precisely in the years 1433 to 1470). They constituted a higher percentage as compared with the previous period (20% of Polish students of the Utraquist University became professors). Moreover, they held much more representative and prestigious university functions and, above all, they worked for decades in Prague.
Marcin of Łęczyca (probably of peasant origin) was a professor at the Utraquist University from 1444 to 1464. During his time at the university, he examined fifty-nine bachelors of liberal arts (three from Poland) and six masters. He promoted five students as bachelors and two as masters of liberal arts. He was also the dean (1445/46) and the rector of the entire university (1456/57). 17 In spite of that, he left Prague around 1464 and became a doctor in the Poznań/Poznan Chamber and died in 1474. During his work at the university, he ensured Polish students in Prague had dignified representation, in part by contributing in 1445 to the admission of the peasant son of Marcin Król of Żurawica to the group of professors (he would leave Prague after one year) 18 as well as by likely helping the career of Stanisław of Gniezno, who held a professorship from 1447 to 1459. During his tenure, Stanisław of Gniezno examined thirty-three bachelors and sixteen masters (one from Poland) of liberal arts, promoted one bachelor (a Pole), and was also dean (1448/9), dispenser (1451)(1452)1457), and assessor (1452-1453). 19 He was associated with the university and Prague for the rest of his life and died in the village of Malešice in 1459. 20 For a short time, from 1460 to 1462, the nobleman Wincenty of Karczewo in Greater Poland was also a professor at the University of Prague. Wincenty of Karczewo examined a total of sixteen bachelors of liberal arts and became a collector (1462), 21 but in 1462 he left Prague due to a conflict with the university 22 and was probably unwilling to accept the Compacts of Basel. After returning to Poland, he became a canon of Poznań, the prosecutor of the chapter, and even a surrogate of the official (1472-1485). He died in 1485. Stanisław of Kościan was likely a professor in Prague for an even shorter time, becoming a master in 1467 and, after 1469, working as a professor. In 1470, he examined five bachelors of liberal arts and then immediately disappears from university records, perhaps dying around the year 1471. 23 Of course, such a large percentage of graduates from Poland deciding to pursue an academic career in Prague was the result of the fact that they could not count on doing so in their home country. As alumni of the Utraquist University, and additionally as members of social groups that were less privileged in Polish society (mostly peasants or poor townspeople from Greater Poland), they did not have excellent prospects awaiting them in their homeland, where preference was given to nobility. It must be noted that earning a degree at the Hussite university undoubtedly carried the risk of consequences upon returning to Poland. Marcin of Łęczyca failed to make a great career after returning to the country, and Wincenty of Karczewo was only defended by his nobility, although it is not known whether both were accidentally rejected by the University of Kraków on the basis of its intolerance of Hussites. 24 Marcin Król of Żurawica was an exception, but he began his academic career in Poland and only lectured in Prague for a short while. However, the remaining professors from Poland, Stanisław of Gniezno and Stanisław of Kościan, remained in Prague and were linked with the university there until their deaths.

Polish professors at the Jesuit Academy (1573-1622)
In the mid-16th century, the Utraquist University faced competition from the Jesuits, who arrived in Prague in 1556. As a Catholic university, their academy had no difficulty attracting Polish students and, subsequently, professors too (the first Jesuit schools in Poland: 1565 -Braniewo; 1568 -Pułtusk; 1570 -Vilnius; 1573 -Poznań). The Jesuit education system, based on teaching provided by clerics regular, was completely different from the classical university one. 25 Each Jesuit professor had to be a priest and was therefore subject to specific statutory regulations. Everyone had to teach in lower (gymnasium) or higher (academic) classes, but not necessarily at the academy at which they studied. They often travelled to other colleges in Bohemia or Austria and viewed teaching as one of many steps in their careers. They even frequently returned to their home country to pursue careers there. Therefore, they were often teachers by duty rather than by desire or ambition (they could count on better positions within the religious structure).
Teaching work could have started for the Prague Jesuits quite early, because even without a degree in philosophy it was possible to teach in lower grammar classes. 26 Moreover, there was often a lack of appropriate teaching staff in the Prague college (mainly in higher education), which is why it was commonly the case that young Jesuits were delegated to teaching, acquiring experience at their home college and then going to teach elsewhere. Therefore, it was an excellent opportunity for ambitious Jesuits from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to quickly rise in rank within the Jesuit hierarchy. A total of nine Jesuits from the Commonwealth took advantage of this opportunity (three fourths were townspeople, and over half were from Lesser Poland), eight of whom had previously studied at the academy in Prague. The remaining Jesuit, Grzegorz Kamiński, came to Prague to teach as a typical Jesuit educator. 27 Of this group, the majority (six professors) taught in the lower (gymnasium) classes, with only three teaching in the higher classes (academic). They did, however, leave Prague quite quickly after working for the college and the academy to pursue careers (Jesuit cursus honorum) in other parts of the Austrian province (until 1623), or they returned to their homeland. Their social (mainly bourgeois) and territorial origins (more than half from Lesser Poland) as well as increased mobility connected with returning to Poland are comparable to Polish professors at the Three-Faculty University in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Similarly, as was the case at the Three-Faculty University, they were not burdened with overly representative positions, which does not, however, mean that they did not rise to such positions at other colleges. Marcin Bastius was the regent of the Convent of St Bartholomew from 1580 to 1582; 28 another, Piotr Velcusius, was regent of the school from 1599 to 1607. 29 In all, they held the office of regent for ten years, which is a considerable achievement given the total of regents from the period. 30 In turn, the function of sub-regent was exercised by one Jesuit from the Commonwealth, Marcin Doleator, who held the position 28 The role of regent and sub-regent of the Convent of St Bartholomew involved the management of the house intended for alumni and students of the Jesuit Academy in Prague. Initially for the poor, it eventually served the noble. The regent and sub-regent were appointed by the rector of the collegium. The regent represented the boarding school in all matters before the collegium, but in matters concerning third parties he was assisted by the rector. The average tenure for the office of regent was approximately 3 to 4 years. The sub-regent, in turn, represented the regent in his absence and oversaw the financial and economic matters of the boarding school  for a short time in 1611 31 and supported the then regent Sebastian Scipione (regent from 1611 to 1614). 32 However, the exception is the poor townsman Teofil Krystecki of Biecz, who was first the prefect of studies at the Prague Jesuit Academy (1592-1594 and 1600-1601) and then the rector of the entire college and academy (1606-1611). As rector, Krystecki matriculated some 235 students, participated in the promotion of eighty-three bachelors of philosophy, eight masters of philosophy, 33 wrote a theatre play (1611), 34 and established a foundation for two boys called Census Kautekianus 35 at the Convent of St Bartholomew, which testified to his good will and concern for future generations of priests. 36 Interestingly, like his compatriot, the former rector of the Utraquist University Marcin of Łęczyca, he also left Prague (1612) and even decided to leave the Society of Jesus (in 1616 he became a Carthusian) to finally return to Poland (1616) and rejoin the order of the Jesuits (he died in 1622).
For members of politically and socially disadvantaged groups in the Commonwealth, joining the Society of Jesus was very much a steppingstone in the improvement of their social situation and could even lead to ennoblement. Especially for peasants or members of the bourgeoisie, adequate education and work in Jesuit colleges could contribute to significant social advancement. 37 The education obtained in Prague had a significant impact on the development of the careers of Jesuit university graduates, comparable to that of studies at Prague universities until 1419. It is not surprising then that the Jesuit professors took advantage of the opportunity to study and teach in Prague in the hope of later developing their Jesuit careers (Marcin Bastius of Pieniężno was even the rector of the college in Graz), though not necessarily as Jesuit educators.

Polish professors at Charles-Ferdinand University (1654-1773)
For some time after the Bohemian Revolt (1618-1620) and the reaction of the Catholic Habsburgs, the Prague academic community was divided into three colleges: the Jesuit three-faculty Klementinum; the Imperial two-faculty Karolinum; and the higher Archbis-hopʼs Seminary. Eventually, however, there was unification, and Charles-Ferdinand University with its four faculties was established in 1654. The arts and theological faculties remained under the control of the Jesuits, and Polish professors also taught at the school 31 L. during this time. Of course, they were required to be members of the order and be associated with the Jesuit province of Bohemia (from 1623), which is why few Poles joined the university. As in previous years, they treated teaching as a step on their career paths and, sometimes, as a necessary condition of furthering their careers within the Jesuit hierarchy. Own study based on: AUK Praha, M-4, p. 5, 14-16, 19-23, 27-29, 36. In total, only four Polish Jesuit professors (two noblemen, two townspeople) lectured at Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague from 1654 to 1773, three of whom (in addition to Kochański) were also graduates of the university. Considering the total number of professors lecturing at the arts and theological faculties in Prague from 1656 to 1680, the proportion of Polish professors was approximately 6% (of 70 professors). 38 While that percentage may not be particularly high, it did comprise some remarkable individuals and outstanding Jesuits, such as Adam Adamandy Kochański, astronomer to the Polish king Jan III Sobieski. In addition, despite their small number, they achieved the highest degree of dignity in the university hierarchy.
Andrzej Schambogen of Pieniężno, a former provincial of the Jesuit province of Bohemia (1652-1655), was the rector of the university from 1656 to 1659 at the culmination of his religious career. During his work as rector, he took part in the promotion of some 227 bachelors and 145 masters of liberal arts, matriculated 145 law students and seven medical students, and promoted four doctors of law. 39 In turn, Fryderyk Kazimierz Wolff von Lüdinghausen was successively the senior (1675), vice dean (1675), and dean ( 1679-1680) of the arts faculty and then the senior of the theological faculty (1687). During his tenure, he promoted a total of ninety-two bachelors and twenty-six masters of liberal arts. 40 He is best known as the founder and long-standing chancellor of Leopold University in Wrocław  -4, pp. 21-24, 27-29, 36;AUK M-22, pp. 138, 143-149, 152-153, 165, 169-173. (1702AUK M-22, pp. 138, 143-149, 152-153, 165, 169-173. ( -1709. It is clear that though few in number, Polish professors hold a significant place in the history of Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague and also in the history of the Jesuit province of Bohemia. Despite their commitment to the University of Prague, however, they would achieve their highest Jesuit dignity beyond the city of Prague.

Conclusions
In summary, it can be said that throughout the entire period of the operation of Prague's universities in the Middle Ages and early modern period, not many Polish professors worked in Prague (a total of 31 from 1374 to 1680). Despite the geographical proximity of Bohemia to Poland, they preferred to work and teach in their home country, and only in cases when their origin was from the lower social strata did they choose permanent work at the universities in Prague, which can be seen in the statistics of their social origin: 59% townspeople, 35% nobles, and 6% peasants. As townspeople or peasants, they could not count on better positions in their home country (e.g. Stanisław of Gniezno or Marcin of Łęczyca), so they pursued work in a place where origin did not matter as much as in a country with a noble democracy. The Czech Kingdom seemed, therefore, to be a more egalitarian country. The situation was similar regarding their territorial origin. The closer a given professor lived to the Czech Kingdom, the more willingly he began his studies and academic career there (48% of the professors came from Lesser Poland, 16% from Greater Poland).
Despite their small numbers, they represented a very ambitious group of individuals, and many of them became important university officials in Prague (rectors: Marcin of Łęczyca, Teofil Krystecki of Biecz, Andrzej Schambogen of Pieniężno; deans: Stanisław of Gniezno, Fryderyk Kazimierz Wolff von Lüdinghausen). Following the end of the Prague stage of their academic careers, they furthered their development at foreign universities and demonstrated considerable academic mobility (e.g. Mateusz of Kraków lectured in Heidelberg, Mikołaj Wigandi and Mikołaj of Pyzdry in Kraków, and Fryderyk Kazimierz Wolff von Lüdinghausen in Wrocław).
The above data clearly allow for the conclusion that Polish professors in the Middle Ages (eighteen of them) regarded the universities in Prague as places where they could learn basic university work, which they later developed after returning to their homeland and joining the University of Kraków (refounded in 1400). It was, therefore, a top-down endeavour carried out in the interest of the Polish king, the refounder of the university. In the early modern period, Prague's universities were treated as a stop along the individual career paths of particular professors (a total of thirteen Polish professors). The work of university educators was seen rather as a necessary duty on the road to further honours within the Jesuit hierarchy (cursus honorum).
Of considerable significance is the fact that most of these professors missed their homeland very much, as evidenced by their frequent returns to Poland. This was either at the beginning of their career with the aim of pursuing it further in the homeland (Mikołaj Wigandi, Mikołaj of Pyzdry, Stefan Mladota of Czersk, Paweł Włodkowic, Jan of Fałków, Jakub of Kraków, Henryk of Kłobuck, Grzegorz of Kraków), or upon their 'retirement' (Marcin of Łęczyca, Teofil Krystecki of Biecz), and it clearly demonstrated how a group of Polish professors at universities in Prague during the Middle Ages and early modern period was mobile and approached their time in Prague as a stop or even springboard on the way to future university, clerical, or religious careers.